Why are women underrepresented in politics? And how does it matter? Inclusiveness and empowerment of women are essential not only for human existence but also for flourishing democracy in a country. They are underprivileged and underrepresented in the political systems, which are considered to be playgrounds for men only, despite having nearly half the population on Earth. Politics is one of the strong pillars in the foundation and functioning of this civilization and women being the creator of that civilization kept out of its functioning. As per the report of the Election Commission of India, women represent 10.5 percent of the total members of the Parliament and that is just the tip of the iceberg. The long-pending Women’s Reservation Bill is a testament that politicians in India care about their seats more than the upliftment of women in politics. Women’s participation in politics has been distressed for ages. Education can dismantle the entrenched patriarchal mechanism in society which can enrich some rationale in citizens to encourage women in politics. The research provides data on how the share of women politicians can increase by preference vote cast for women, suggesting a salient role of double preference voting in promoting women’s empowerment in politics. Now, the participation or the increment in the number of women in politics will not alone provide solutions. Female leaders must be provided with the power to perceive the problems and execute the policies to resolve issues. Reducing gender inequality must be on the top political agendas of developing countries that are far off from equality, which would deliver high economic and societal benefits.
Keywords: underrepresentation, civilization, equality, education, voting
INTRODUCTION
Political representation is not just a matter of women’s rights but equity, humanity, and democracy. People’s interests and priorities are often shaped by their respective social, economic, and ethnic differences. Women are not just a minority but half the population and valuable voters of society who deserve as many rights as men. Several movements like feminism itself tried to make understand equality for women in India. Women also understood the relevance of power and politics. They realized how politics is the way to get ‘the voice’. Politics is portrayed as a realm dominated by men because historically it has always been a male-dominated or governed institution. In her book “sexual politics,” Kate Millet defines politics as power-structured interactions and arrangements where one group of people is in control of another. Many political thinkers believed that women should be protected from the immorality of the public political spheres. Whether moral or immoral, it was the common view at hand for the support of confinement of women to a private world that kept them from it. Democracy at its root level ensures every single citizen equality and justice. Despite this democratic system and constitutional rights guaranteed to every citizen, its spirit has not been realized in its true sense. It takes many years to create a social change but little by little we can make a change. There are different dimensions like economic participation, education levels, employment opportunities political participation, and survival probabilities through which we can assess the presence or absence of gender inequality among men and women. Women’s empowerment in politics requires a multidimensional approach. Efforts should be on the execution and implementation of the policies like preventing coercion, misrepresentation, assault, and kidnapping during elections. Fair representation of women in political life has a positive impact on gender mainstreaming in various policies. Innumerable policies have been formulated for women’s upliftment like reservation and quotas at the grass-root level which yielded positive results. But despite many attempts, women’s representation at the centre is still very low. In this research paper, the emphasis will be on politics as an activity, including women’s involvement in public politics, the repercussions of policymaking on women, and potential solutions through social, legislative, and judicial mechanisms.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This is a qualitative type of research and an inductive approach has been adopted for the conclusion. Secondary sources which included studies on ‘Women in Politics’, writings, and contemporary journals on Women’s empowerment have been used for the data collection and analysis on the participation of women in politics in developing countries. The study is the collective approach to those research writings and charts involved.
REVIEW OF LITEREATURE
In the publication titled “Politics of Female Political Representation: An Overview” by Dr. Vibhuti Patel (2017), the author delves into the historical context of women’s political representation in India and scrutinizes the impediments that impede their active participation in politics. Dr. Patel underscores social, economic, and cultural factors perpetuating gender inequalities, including patriarchy, violence against women, lack of financial support, and voter biases. The suggested measures for enhancing women’s representation encompass changes in social attitudes, policy reforms, and affirmative action.
In the work titled “The Representation of Women in Indian Politics: A Critical Analysis” by Dr. Ritu Diwan (2016), the author investigates the factors contributing to the underrepresentation of women in Indian politics. Dr. Diwan explores the role of political parties, electoral processes, and societal norms in constraining women’s access to political power. The importance of gender-sensitive policies, education, and leadership development programs is highlighted as essential for fostering women’s political participation and representation.
In the study “Electoral Gender Gap in India: Exploring the Political Participation of Women” by Dr. Mona Joshi and Dr. Yogesh Joshi (2020), the authors delve into the electoral gender gap in India and its repercussions on women’s political participation. They analyze socio-cultural and institutional factors influencing women’s decision to engage in politics, including education, employment opportunities, family dynamics, and political party dynamics. The authors advocate for gender-sensitive electoral reforms and efforts to challenge societal gender biases. In the research paper “Women’s Political Representation in India: A Critical Review” by Dr. Ranjana Kumari (2018), the author critically reviews existing literature on women’s political representation in India. Dr. Kumari examines the progress made in increasing women’s representation in local governance and highlights challenges faced at the national level. The impact of reservation policies, social barriers, and the role of political parties in fostering women’s political empowerment are discussed, calling for comprehensive efforts to address gender-based discrimination and improve women’s access to political power.
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This research addresses the persistent issue of political inequality, specifically focusing on the historical perception of women as primary caregivers. Despite legislative efforts aimed at women’s empowerment, they continue to face exclusion from active participation in politics. Attaining the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 necessitates ensuring equal access for women to political power and leadership positions. Nevertheless, current data reveals a global underrepresentation of women in decision-making roles at all levels, indicating a considerable gap in achieving gender political parity. To bridge these disparities, it is imperative for the government to prioritize education and raise genuine awareness to encourage increased participation of women.
HYPOTHESIS
- Women are highly underrepresented in the political field which is creating an imbalance and inequality in the legislative decisions.
- Political decisions are rather discriminative and inclined towards power gain instead of focusing on the country’s development.
RESEARCH QUESTION
RQ1: To what extent are women underrepresented in politics in developing countries?
RQ2: What measures have governments taken to address the issue of gender imbalance in the political arena?
RQ3: Does the judicial approach prioritize inclusiveness for women in the political sphere?
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
- To ascertain the significance of women’s inclusion in the legislative process at the central level.
- To investigate the extent of underrepresentation of women in Indian politics.
- To examine the multifaceted factors contributing to this underrepresentation.
- To assess the importance of women’s participation in decision-making for the country’s development and the compelling need to establish gender balance in politics.
- To evaluate the critical role of legislative measures and social reforms in addressing the issue of underrepresentation.
UNDERREPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN INDIA
The real question is how are more women exercising their right to vote but not many are becoming law-makers. Politics is fundamentally a public act, and research indicates that women’s capacity to navigate space in society apart from the family is a significant component in determining whether they would be politically engaged or active. Just like charity begins at home, social change begins at the nuclear level. Housemaker women must have a voice at home to become a part of public politics. Politicians treat women as vote banks only for elections. The overall voter participation for the 16th Lok Sabha was 66 percent, the highest level for both men and women voters in the nation since 1984. There were competing hopes for greater women’s representation in the Lok Sabha with the rising percentage of female voters. Just 10.9 percent of seats in the 15th Lok Sabha were held by women; this percentage has since increased to 11.2 percent. Even though women’s voter turnout has increased exponentially over the years, the representation of women at the center is a national shame. Even in the present and best period (2002-2019), the proportion of women MPs in the Lok Sabha remains appallingly low at 10%. The current Lok Sabha has the most female MPs since 1952, with over 14 percent (78 MPs) of the total. Female political representation in India is nothing but impressive.
| Election years | Percentage of male MPs in Lok Sabha | Percentage of women MPs in Lok Sabha |
| Phase I (1952-77) | 95% | 5% |
| Phase II (1977-2002) | 93% | 7% |
| Phase III (2002 onwards) | 90% | 10% |
From the source of the Election Commission of India, Government of India, the average representation gap between men and women candidates in Lok Sabha is about 85.8%. If current trends continue, it will take another 50 years to reach the critical mass of 33%. These minimal numbers of women demand disciplinary measures to guarantee more female representation. Political parties are the organization in charge of political mobilization and recruiting. It must make room for women to increase gender engagement in politics. With the aid of quotas and reservations, women’s participation in local municipalities has steadily increased in several nations, including Pakistan and India, although the number of leaders in top leadership positions in local government is still comparatively low.
The causes of inadequate representation are mainly social and domestic constraints, lack of willingness due to domestic work, and lack of confidence. Gender stereotypes and entrenched gender norms can be a persistent practical barrier to women’s engagement in politics and public life. Even if the women are willing to participate, women candidates are automatically assumed to be the losing party or less winnable seats. The voters’ preferences must not be gender-biased. Some political parties let women stand as their candidates for their voting political agenda and election manifesto but the power remains in the hands of the real male bosses. The women are not given leadership powers and they lag due to this male dominance.
RELEVANCE OF GENDER BALANCE IN POLITICS
An effective democracy demands equal rights for all genders, be it male or female. Apart from democratic rights and morality, women’s participation anticipates great positive effects on society as a whole. Certain reports convey that female candidates become role models for other women, inspiring young girls to raise their voices, stand for themselves, and to dream big. It has been noticed that if the village ‘Pradhan’ is a woman, the percentage of women participating in the Gram Sansad increases dramatically (from 6.9% to 9.9%). This could boost women’s evaluation and confidence in high-stress leadership roles. It states unequivocally that politics is not solely a male domain. Other studies suggest that women in politics are likely to be less corrupt because they barely get an opportunity like that. But, given the favorable circumstances, women are just as prone as males to be corrupt. Despite the fact that several governments have implemented policies to hire more women in order to improve anti-corruption efforts. The reason for this is that women have less power to commit corruption. But, with equal standing with males, women can eventually establish “old girls’ clubs.”
As voters, women have different preferences compared to men. When these women become the policy or decision-makers, they tend to implement better and more inclusive policies for the overall welfare of society and not just based on personal biases. Women tend to invest more in the education and health sector which are considered to be the pillar sectors of growth and development. The tilt towards better government public expenditure by women politicians has been seen in developing countries more than the western ones. Women have an evident beneficial influence in politics. There is strong evidence in the literature to show the relevance of women’s representation in politics. “Study after study has shown us that there is no more effective weapon for development than women’s empowerment,” Kofi Annan said.
CAUSES BEHIND THE UNDERREPRESENTATION
There is persistent underrepresentation of women in politics where the most important decisions are made that shape the political, economic, and social lives of the nation. Women find barriers in participation due to illiteracy, leadership skills, opportunities, and diplomacy that men play in politics. The domestic burden is the main cause of the lack of participation of women. Women are supposedly for the rearing and bearing of their children and their place is in the kitchen alone. Women entering politics are dragged down by conservative social constraints.
- Violence against women has persisted throughout history as a manifestation of gender-based discrimination. Factors such as illiteracy, child marriage, and misogyny contribute to the prevalence of sexual violence against women. In South Asia, vilification of women politicians is widespread. However, a report by the Centre for Social Research (CSR), supported by UN Women, indicates that India experiences a higher frequency of physical violence, verbal abuse, and threats compared to Pakistan. In India, 45% of women politicians surveyed reported experiencing physical abuse, while the rates in Pakistan and Nepal are 30% and 21%, respectively. It’s crucial to consider that these figures may also reflect differences in complaint reporting rates.
Patriarchy remains deeply ingrained in Indian society, making survival for women challenging amidst prevalent abuse and assaults. Engaging in politics, an arena dominated by misogynistic attitudes, poses additional challenges. Discrimination against women is pervasive across various societal spheres, including the workplace and domestic settings. Unfortunately, sexual violence extends to marriages, where marital rape often goes unpunished. The lack of justice for women raises questions about the incentive for survivors to speak out against such assaults in a society that often disregards their plight.
- Voters’ biases are indicative of regressive perceptions, suggesting a belief that women are not suited for leadership roles or decision-making positions. According to the latest data from the World Value Survey (WVS, 2017-2020), fewer than 20% of respondents in Western Europe agree with the statement “Men make better political leaders than women.” The influential figures in political parties, particularly those responsible for selecting candidates, often exhibit a preference for promoting male candidates over their female counterparts. These male leaders effectively serve as gatekeepers, controlling access to opportunities for women in politics. Despite an increase in women’s voter participation since the constitution was established, patriarchal tendencies persist. The survey vividly highlights societal attitudes in developing countries, where a bias in favor of men in governance endures, rooted in the misconception that they make superior political leaders.
(Data are based on the latest wave of the World Value Survey, 2017-2020. The graph represents the share of survey respondents who report to “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” with the statement “Men make better political leaders than women do”.)
- Lack of Finance- Women are not financially supported to stand in elections. With the ingrained patriarchy in society, we can’t expect anything to get done without any corruption, and women and minorities suffer due to that. Everything is about money and politics is a dirty business that women with an insignificant amount of power and funds cannot get into. The campaigning requires a huge amount of funds and women are confined to households with decision-making power given to their husbands and fathers. Women are not provided sufficient financial education because women are solely expected to work in the kitchen, hence the majority of the financial decisions are made by their male family members. Women are not allowed to control money, let alone an entire constituency or country.
- Misrepresentation -The female candidates are misrepresented in the name of their husbands, they are coerced to take participation and then become the puppets of their masters. Female voters are coerced to vote for their abusers because they have that power. “Since literacy is associated in general with the ability to move outside the home and stand on one’s outside of it, it is also connected to the ability of women to meet and collaborate with other women,” Martial spoke of political engagement.
SOCIAL REFORMS
Empowering Indian women involves addressing educational disparities, challenging gender norms, redefining the division of labor, and confronting discriminatory attitudes. UN Women advocates for legislative and constitutional changes to ensure women’s equal access to political arenas, encompassing roles as voters, candidates, elected officials, and civil workers.
- Women must build confidence, overcoming historical hesitations towards leadership roles, particularly in the often-stigmatized field of politics, prevalent in developing nations like India. Politics, considered a ‘dirty game,’ deters women due to perceived consequences.
- Voters should recognize that women can be exceptional leaders, and elections should be free from gender bias. Society needs to eradicate sexism and choose candidates based on their political education and qualifications.
- Domestic households should provide financial support to female family members, addressing the lack of opportunities for financial education.
- The burden of domestic responsibilities should be shared equally between spouses. Childcare and household chores should not be solely the responsibility of women.
- The prevailing “long hour” political culture should be relaxed to support women in politics, as societal norms often discourage women from prioritizing work outside the household.
LEGISLATIVE MEASURES
Throughout history, atrocities against women have persisted, prompting the establishment of protective measures rooted in customs, religious norms, laws, social movements, and national and international legislations. The constitutional framework ensures equal civil and political rights for women, with Fundamental Rights guaranteeing equality before the law, protection against discrimination based on various factors, and equal opportunities in employment affairs. Articles 14, 15, 15(3), 16, 39(a), 39(b), 39(c), and 42 of the Constitution specifically address these principles.
In a proactive step towards women’s empowerment, the Indian government consolidated various initiatives under the National Mission for Women’s Empowerment (NMEW). The NMEW aims to enhance the economic empowerment of women through skill development, microcredit, vocational training, and entrepreneurship. To address gender disparities in politics at the grassroots level, the Constitution (Seventy-Third Amendment) Act, 1992, and the Constitution (Seventy-Fourth Amendment) Act, 1992 were enacted, reserving seats for women in Panchayats and Municipalities, respectively. This legislative move aspired to correct gender imbalances and empower women in local governance. The elections to these bodies have witnessed a significant increase in women’s representation, with over a million women elected every five years. Notably, in 2006 alone, 9,75,116 women were elected to Gram Panchayats, 58,094 to Panchayats at the Intermediate level, and 5,779 to Panchayats at the District level. The positive outcomes of these reservations are evident, as women’s participation surged from 4.5% to an impressive 40%, providing countless women with opportunities beyond traditional roles as homemakers.”
RESERVATION OF WOMEN IN LOK SABHA/ASSEMBLIES
Following extensive advocacy by women’s organizations, Bills proposing women’s reservations were introduced in Parliament in 1996, 1998, and 1999; however, they faced repeated failures to pass. The Constitution (Eighty-first Amendment) Bill of 1996, presented on September 12, 1996, recommended reserving one-third of the total seats filled by direct elections in the House of the People and Legislative Assemblies of the States for women. Additionally, one-third of seats were designated for women from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes among those reserved under Article 330 and Article 332 of the Constitution. Despite its introduction, the Bill underwent intense debates and was ultimately referred to a Joint Committee of Parliament, consisting of 31 members from both Houses, who expressed dissent in various ways.
Subsequently, multiple Bills were introduced but faced dissent due to a lack of consensus. The Constitution (One Hundred and Eighth Amendment) Bill, 2008, commonly known as the Women’s Reservation Bill, was presented in the Rajya Sabha on May 6, 2008. The Bill aims to address gender inequality and discrimination against women through their political empowerment. It aligns with the National Common Minimum Programme’s vision for women’s empowerment and seeks to reserve approximately one-third of the seats in the House of the People and Legislative Assembly of every State for women.
Various political parties hold diverse perspectives on this Bill, resulting in the presentation of alternative proposals in Parliament. While the reservation would grant special rights and privileges to around 180 women in Parliament and many more in State legislatures, concerns persist regarding its impact on ordinary women citizens. Questions arise about whether the policy will genuinely empower women or if men will exploit it. Some argue that reserving seats becomes meaningless if women are treated as mere puppets in a patriarchal society.
JUDICIAL APPROACH
Legislative measures and the judiciary have played pivotal roles in upholding and advancing the constitutional objectives concerning women’s protection and rights. Judicial activism, a crucial tool employed by the judiciary, addresses legislative shortcomings by overseeing and balancing the laws enacted by the parliament. Numerous judgments have set guidelines, prompting legislative amendments.
As articulated by Justice P.N. Bhagwati, “The judge infuses life and blood into the dry skeleton provided by the legislature and creates a living organism appropriate and adequate to meet the needs of society.” While the constitution establishes provisions for women’s rights and powers, it is the judiciary that ensures justice for transgressions against women. The landmark case of C.V. Muthamma vs. Union of India exemplifies the Supreme Court’s role in striking down discriminatory rules in the Indian civil services, affirming women employees’ fundamental right to equality in employment matters.
Expressing profound gratitude for the judiciary’s intervention against historical injustices, it is acknowledged that sometimes the judiciary must bridge the gap between the legislature and the executive. Judicial interference becomes indispensable to redress the grievances of women ensnared in the deep roots of patriarchy. Despite a nation that venerates women, it is disheartening that an activist approach is required for the judiciary to safeguard and empower women in politics, a process that may take considerable time (Beaman L. E., 2012).
The process of judicial interpretation imparts true meaning to the Constitution and laws enacted by the legislature. Challenges to Constitutional mandates and laws providing protective discrimination for women in various aspects of their lives have been addressed in courts. The superior courts in India have developed a gender jurisprudence framework, breathing life into the constitutional scheme of protective discrimination for women through mechanisms such as judicial review, activism, social action litigation, and the duty to enforce fundamental rights.
SUGGESTIONS
It has been decades since the independence of our nation and other developing countries and it is the need of the hour to make the change we wish to see. Here are some suggestions to make politics more gender inclusive:
- Promote gender equality and make voters aware of the issue of underrepresentation and its repercussions on the decision-making power of the legislature.
- Government must provide quotas and reservations for women’s upliftment in politics so that equality among equals is prevailed just like promised in the constitution of India. Women’s Reservation Bill (108th Constitutional Amendment Bill), 2008 must get passed in the Lok Sabha.
- The judiciary has the biggest responsibility of serving justice whenever conflicts arise. Women must be provided with better opportunities to be part of the judiciary so as to ensure the security of gender inclusiveness.
- women must be provided awareness about the necessity of studying law and being a part of politics and not be regarded as the weaker section who cannot play the ‘dirty politics’.
CONCLUSION
We can conclude that violence against women in politics is deeply damaging not only to women but to all of us. Social reforms, legislative policies, and judicial interpretations can have a robust effect on the empowerment of women in politics if everything works hand-in-hand. A social change requires years to take place in any civilization. Systematic and institutionalized patriarchy has made it nearly impossible for women to rise and conquer gender inclusiveness in politics. Reducing or closing gender gaps would combat the critical hindrance of the underrepresentation of women in political institutions. The timely implementation of policies, proper judicial delivery, and reduced social constraints would empower women to fight the battle against patriarchy. It is high time to break the silence and social stigmas and let women play the “dirty game of politics.”
Priyanka
U.I.L.S., Panjab university, chandigarh