Abstract
This research paper does a comprehensive comparison examination of crime rates in Iceland and Afghanistan using data from the Global Peace Index (GPI) for 2023. The contrast of Iceland as one of the most peaceful nations and Afghanistan as one of the most crime-ridden countries provides an intriguing opportunity to investigate the underlying socio-political mechanisms determining safety and security. With Iceland known for its strong social welfare systems, good governance, and coherent societal fabric, and Afghanistan dealing with ongoing instability, violence, and governance issues, the difference between these two countries presents rich ground for investigation.The purpose of this study is to examine the many reasons that contribute to the disparity in crime rates between Iceland and Afghanistan, drawing on socioeconomic situations, government systems, cultural norms, and historical contexts. By investigating the complex interplay of these variables, this study hopes to highlight the underlying mechanisms driving crime patterns and inspire evidence-based policy actions targeted at reducing crime and promoting peace.
Keywords: Iceland, Afghanistan, Global Peace Index, Crime, Socio-political, Socio-economic
Introduction
“Peace is not merely a distant goal that we seek, but a means by which we arrive at that goal.”
by Martin Luther King Jr.
In a world identified by differing levels of peace and security, the comparison between Iceland and Afghanistan demonstrates the complex interplay of sociopolitical forces determining crime rates within countries. With Iceland frequently listed among the most peaceful countries and Afghanistan suffering with widespread insecurity, the contrast between these two countries provides a compelling prism through which to analyse the main factors of safety and security.Iceland, a Nordic island nation known for its magnificent scenery and lively culture, serves as an example of peace and stability. Iceland, with a population of around 366,000, has low crime rates, high levels of social cohesion, and a strong social assistance system. Against this backdrop of prosperity and social harmony, Iceland stands out as a beacon of hope for countries working to develop inclusive societies and improve the well-being of their population.In sharp contrast, Afghanistan paints a grim picture of conflict, instability, and insecurity. Located at the crossroads of South Asia, this landlocked country of nearly 38 million people has experienced decades of political change, foreign meddling, and internal strife. The legacy of battle, along with widespread poverty, weak government, and ethnic differences, has resulted in a dangerous environment marked by high levels of crime and violence.
The juxtaposition of Iceland and Afghanistan is a striking reminder of the ongoing challenges and opportunities in the pursuit of peace and security. This study aims to contribute to a broader
discussion on peacebuilding, conflict resolution, and sustainable development in an ever-changing world by unravelling the intricate web of sociopolitical forces that shape crime rates.
Research Methodology
This study employs a comparative analysis approach to examine the crime rates in Iceland and Afghanistan, utilising the Global Peace Index (GPI) of 2023 as the primary source of data including various reports released by various organisations including offices of the United Nations. The GPI measures the relative peacefulness of nations and regions based on various indicators, including levels of violence, conflict, and societal safety.
Review of Literature
Numerous studies have highlighted the significance of socioeconomic situations in determining crime rates. Research in Iceland shows that high levels of affluence, low unemployment rates, and strong social safety systems correlate to societal stability and lower levels of crime1.In contrast, in Afghanistan, chronic poverty, restricted access to education and healthcare, and economic inequities have been recognised as fundamental reasons promoting criminal activity.Moreover, the illicit drug trade, has emerged as a significant driver of crime and violence in Afghanistan.Iceland’s robust democratic institutions, open government, and high levels of trust in law enforcement agencies contribute to a culture of lawfulness and accountability.In contrast, Afghanistan’s history of conflict, weak governance, and corruption pose significant challenges to the enforcement of law and order. Iceland’s homogeneous population and strong sense of social cohesion are often cited as contributing factors to its low crime rates2.In contrast, Afghanistan’s diverse ethnic composition, tribal dynamics, and historical legacies of conflict present unique challenges in fostering social harmony and preventing crime.Iceland’s membership in international organisations such as NATO and the European Union has helped to promote regional stability and security cooperation. In contrast, Afghanistan has been the subject of extensive international military interventions and aid initiatives to solve security concerns and promote state-building.
Why is Iceland so safe?
Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic, to the northwest of the European continent3.Iceland’s journey to becoming one of the world’s safest countries has deep historical roots. The island nation, established by Norse explorers in the late ninth century, has traditionally had a small, homogeneous population. This resulted in a strong feeling of community and shared responsibility, which many believe is a contributing cause to the country’s low crime rate.Iceland
1 Helgi Gunnlauggson, Going Public with Social Science: Crime and Criminal Justice Policy in Iceland, 48 Soc. Probs. 88 (2014)
2 Jon Gunnar Bernburg and Thorolfur Thorlindsson, Violent Values, Conduct Norms, and Youth Aggression: A Multilevel Study in Iceland, 3 Soc. Qua. 457 (2005)
3 WIKIMILI,Iceland – WikiMili, The Best Wikipedia Reader (last visited Mar.22, 2024)
has historically been a law-abiding culture. The creation of the Althingi, one of the world’s oldest functioning legislative assemblies, in 930 AD demonstrates this. The Althingi was a forum for settling conflicts, enacting laws, and maintaining social order, establishing a pattern for a society in which problems are resolved by legislation rather than violence4.The country has one of the lowest murder rates in Europe, with only two people killed on the island in 2021. However, Iceland has a higher rate of reported cases of sexual violence than other European countries, which could indicate that Icelanders have more trust in their criminal justice system and that victims of sexual or domestic abuse face less social stigma in Iceland. Furthermore, the rate of reported violent attacks has risen significantly over the last decade, but it remains low by European standards. In April 2021, a terrible murder linked to organised crime shook the generally calm country, demonstrating that this form of crime has an impact on the country5. Iceland doesn’t even have a military and police officers in Iceland do not carry weapons; another indication of the general safety level in the country6.
Population Homogeneity
Iceland’s population is generally homogeneous, with the vast majority of citizens identifying as Icelandic. The majority of the population is descended from Norse settlers who came to the country during the Viking Age.The lack of significant ethnic diversity reduces the tensions and conflicts that are commonly associated with multicultural society. Icelandic culture is distinguished by its rich literary heritage, folklore, and traditions derived from Norse mythology and mediaeval sagas. These cultural characteristics are strongly ingrained in Icelandic identity and contribute to a sense of community among Icelanders.The Icelandic language, derived from Old Norse, is Iceland’s official language, and the vast majority of the population speaks it.Linguistic uniformity improves interaction and understanding among Icelanders, hence enhancing interpersonal relationships and community bonds.Iceland’s low crime rate is influenced by the country’s homogeneous population. Close-knit communities and shared cultural values encourage social control mechanisms in which people feel responsible for upholding law and order.
Economic Stability
Iceland’s economy is diverse, with significant areas such as fisheries, tourism, renewable energy, and technology. This diversification reduces the dangers associated with relying on a single industry and adds to overall economic stability. It routinely has lower unemployment rates than many other countries. This is due in part to the economy’s diversification, which provides possibilities in a variety of areas. It offers a high level of living, which includes access to great
4 Trevor Peyton,Why Iceland Is The Safest Country, MEDIUM (Mar. 22,2024, 8:40PM) Why Iceland Is the Safest Country | by Trevor Peyton | Medium
5 Sveinn Helgason,Brutal murder shocks Iceland, prompts government to focus on organized crime, Global Initiative Against Transnational Crime (Mar. 15,2024, 7:31 PM)
6 Einar H.Divyk, Crime in Iceland-Statistics and Facts, STATISTIA, Crime in Iceland – Statistics & Facts | Statista (Mar. 22, 2024, 8;46PM)
healthcare, education, housing, and social services. These characteristics improve residents’ overall well-being and satisfaction.
Effective Judicial System
Iceland’s judicial system7 is distinguished by its independence from political interference and impartiality in deciding legal disputes. The judicial system supports the concepts of due process and procedural fairness, which protect individuals’ rights during legal proceedings.It preserves an open and accessible legal system in which laws and procedures are codified, made public, and easily understood by laypeople. Legal records, court rulings, and judgements are made available to the public, encouraging accountability, transparency, and informed participation in the legal system.It provides legal aid and assistance to persons who cannot afford legal representation, enabling equal access to justice for all citizens, regardless of financial circumstances.It contains systems for appellate review and supervision to ensure that lower-court decisions are consistent and correct.
The Global Peace Index
The Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP) publishes the Global Peace Index (GPI), a report that assesses the relative peacefulness of nations and regions8. The GPI ranks 163 independent states and territories, which account for 99.7 percent of the world’s population, based on their level of peacefulness. Over the last decade, the GPI has shown an increase in global violence and a decrease in peace9.The GPI is developed in partnership with a worldwide panel of peace specialists from peace institutes and think tanks, with data acquired and processed by the Economist Intelligence Unit.. The Index was first published in May 2009, and future versions are released annually. Every year, the revised index is unveiled at events in London, Washington, DC, and the United Nations Secretariat in New York.According to the 2023 Global Peace Index, the most peaceful countries are Iceland, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand, and Austria, while the least peaceful are Afghanistan, Yemen, Syria, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.The 2023 GPI’s primary findings10 include a less peaceful world during the last 15 years, a 5% decline in global peace over the last 15 years, and increasing peace inequality between the most and least peaceful countries.The total score for the 2023 GPI dropped due to a reduction in six of the nine geographic regions represented. However, 84 countries boosted their level of peacefulness, while 79 decreased. The total number of conflict-related deaths rose by 96%.In 2022, the global economic cost of violence was $17.5 trillion PPP, which is equivalent to 12.9% of global GDP or $2,200 per capita.
7 European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice, European Judicial Systems – Edition 2010 (data 2008)
8 Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Peace Index 2023
https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/GPI-2023-A3-map-poster.pdf (last visited Mar. 15, 2024)
9 Monica Wang,The World’s Most And Least Peaceful Countries In 2016, Forbes (last visited Mar. 15, 2024)
10 International Peace Institute A Measure of Peace: Key Findings from the 2023 Global Peace Index | International Peace Institute (ipinst.org) (last visited Mar. 15, 2024)
The GPI measures peacefulness by examining the extent to which countries are engaged in current domestic and international conflicts, as well as the level of concord or discord inside a country. Ten elements offer a broad assessment of society safety and security. Their viewpoint is that low crime rates, low incidences of terrorist activity and violent demonstrations, friendly relations with neighbouring countries, a stable political scene, and a small proportion of the population internally displaced or refugees are all signs of peace.
GPI data are subjected to statistical analysis in order to pinpoint specific circumstances that foster peace. Researchers found that the basic cause of peace is positive peace, which encompasses behaviours, establishments, and structures that promote harmony and maintain effective societies. A well-run administration, a thriving business climate, respect for others’ rights, excellent neighbourly relations, information freedom, a high human capital base, low levels of corruption, and fair resource distribution are the eight pillars of constructive peace.High rates of violence make it more important for a nation to have an efficient government, less corruption, respect for the rights of others, and strong relationships with its neighbours. Free speech and a stable economy are more important when a nation gets closer to the Mid-Peace level, which is the average level of peace in the world. The single Pillar that is significantly significant across all three degrees of peacefulness is low levels of corruption. This demonstrates that it has a profoundly transformative impact at every level of a nation’s growth.
A number of major international figures have endorsed the Index as a political project, including former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan; former President of Finland and 2008 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Martti Ahtisaari; the Dalai Lama; Archbishop Desmond Tutu; Muhammad Yunus, and former President Jimmy Carter.Steve Killelea, A.M., the Australian philanthropist who originated the idea of the Index, claims that the Index is “a wake-up call for leaders around the globe11“.
The Case of Afghanistan
The crime rate in Afghanistan is a pressing issue that reflects the country’s numerous challenges, which include prolonged conflict, weak governance systems, and socioeconomic weaknesses. Crime in Afghanistan includes a wide range of activities such as drug trafficking, insurgency-related violence, organised crime, and gender violence. The presence of crime poses serious dangers to public safety, societal stability, and the rule of law, worsening existing problems and impeding efforts towards peace and development.
Afghanistan has witnessed tremendous changes during the last two decades. Among other things, a slew of legal and institutional changes have transformed the criminal justice system. The Afghan system, like other jurisdictions, has unique characteristics and issues. The country’s legal plurality and informal justice system, for example, present fascinating dynamics and levels of complexity. Despite the progress gained, the Taliban’s recent military takeover raises the prospect
11 BBC News, BBC NEWS | Special Reports | Norway rated most peaceful nation (last visited Mar. 15,2024)
of reversing the gains of the previous two decades12. Crime in Afghanistan has varied forms including gender based, humanitarian, ethnic and tribal related youth radicalization and mass displacement, the major crimes have been discussed below.
War Crimes
For decades, war crimes have been committed in Afghanistan, primarily against Afghan civilians.“They have been committed by the Taliban, Afghan government forces, and international military forces stationed in Afghanistan following the US-led invasion in 2001, including but not limited to US and UK troops. From 1996 to 2001, the Taliban seized power in the majority of Afghanistan, enforcing an exceptionally strict version of Sharia (Islamic) law and subjecting countless civilians to unspeakable brutalities. The Afghanistan Justice Project, in a report titled Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity”13, documented the commission of war crimes and crimes against humanity in various phases of Afghanistan’s political history, including during the Taliban’s brutal military campaign.
Mass murders, enforced disappearances, summary executions of tens of thousands of Afghans, indiscriminate bombing and rocketing, mass rape, torture, sexual and gender-based violence, persecution, and other serious crimes are among the known atrocities.The Taliban’s collapse in late 2001 did not end their crimes. Following 2001, the world witnessed a Taliban revival, with the Taliban committing several horrible acts in the years since. Human Rights Watch reported several violations of international humanitarian law14 in 2015 by Afghan governmental forces officials (military and police) or those who support them, such as local militia commanders. Documented crimes include mass killings, summary executions, torture, rape, enforced disappearances, and arbitrary detention.
“Since 2009, UN agencies such as the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) have released annual statistics reports that detail civilian casualties (deaths and injuries) as well as crimes perpetrated by all agencies. A report on civilian casualties15 in armed conflict in 2020, released in early 2021, attributed 62% of all civilian casualties to anti-government groups, including 45% to the Taliban, and 25% to pro-government forces, including 1% to international military forces”.
Drug Trafficking and Production
According to the United Nations, Afghanistan produced over 85% of world opium in 2020. Under the former Republic, the drug trade was Afghanistan’s largest economic sector, employing
12 Mehdi J. Hakimi and Kobra Moradi, Crime and Criminal Justice in Afghanistan, Comparative Criminal Justice: International Trends and Practice (2022)
13 Patricia Gossman,Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, 1978-2001, Open Soc. Fou. (2005), Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, 1978-2001 – Open Society Foundations 14Human Rights Watch, “Today We Shall All Die”: Afghanistan’s Strongmen and the Legacy of Impunity | HRW (last visited Mar. 15, 2024)
15 United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, afghanistan_protection_of_civilians_report_2020_revs3.pdf (unmissions.org) (last visited Mar. 15,2024)
approximately 500,000 people full-time. Though in a 2023 press release16 the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime have mentioned that the opium cultivation in Afghanistan have declined by 95 percent in 2023, there is still high levels of opiate use within the country.
Drug trafficking promotes addiction, organised crime, and corruption, all of which contribute to the region’s overall insecurity and instability.
Throughout the country, regional militia commanders, criminal organisations, and corrupt government officials have used drug trafficking to generate funds. Some anti-government groups profit from drug trafficking. Due to these elements, drug trafficking exacerbates political instability in the country and poses a threat to the country’s inadequate internal security and nascent democratic governance17.
Afghanistan’s geographical position at the crossroads of key drug trafficking routes enables opiate importation into regional and international markets.
Sophisticated trafficking networks, which include drug cartels, criminal syndicates, and corrupt authorities, move opiates across borders into Iran, Pakistan, and Central Asian states.The supply of Afghan heroin fuels drug abuse and addiction in neighbouring nations and abroad, increasing social and health issues while putting a pressure on law enforcement and healthcare systems.Counter-narcotics activities in Afghanistan encounter various problems, including insecurity, corruption, a lack of resources, and the socioeconomic reliance of many villages on opium production.Communities involved in opium production may get locked in cycles of poverty and vulnerability, while drug addiction and related health issues affect individuals and families all throughout the country.
Suggestions and Conclusion
In conclusion, the comparative research of crime rates in Iceland and Afghanistan demonstrates the significant influence of socioeconomic, political, and cultural factors on peace and security. While Iceland’s success in maintaining low crime rates can be ascribed to stable administration, social cohesion, and effective law enforcement tactics, Afghanistan faces enormous hurdles as a result of decades of fighting, poor governance, and institutional fragility.
In both Iceland and Afghanistan, community engagement efforts can be implemented to develop confidence between law enforcement authorities and local citizens, with a focus on investing in social programmes aimed at tackling underlying socioeconomic gaps and fostering social inclusion.
Education and vocational training initiatives can give vulnerable people with options for economic empowerment, reducing their likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour .Enhancing the capacity and effectiveness of Afghanistan’s judicial systems, focused on promoting access to justice, combating corruption, and safeguarding the rule of law, strengthening legal systems and increasing responsibility can serve to deter criminal behaviour and protect citizens’ rights.
16 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan opium cultivation in 2023 declined 95 per cent following drug ban: new UNODC survey (last visited Mar. 15, 2024)
17 LEE V. BARTON, ILLEGAL DRUGS AND GOVERNMENTAL POLICIES 97 (Nova Publishers 2007)
Sustainable peace projects can foster social cohesion and stability, lowering the incidence of crime and violence.Sustainable peace projects can foster social cohesion and stability, lowering the incidence of crime and violence.Furthermore, lessons from Iceland’s successful crime prevention techniques, such as community policing and social welfare programmes, might provide useful insights for developing context-specific interventions customised to Afghanistan’s conditions.
Urvi Jain
University School of Law and Legal Studies